Theology of Immigration Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Religious philosophy of Immigration - Assignment Example While Congress is making new laws fervent Christians, then again, are dissenting and attempting to ensure that these laws are as per the lessons of the good book with respect to movement and how migrants ought to be dealt with. A movement law that guarantees equity, values an individual’s confidence and doesn't influence the country’s picture as an inviting nation. A reasonable migration law will help in making the country’s economy and society more grounded. Settlers have assumed a critical job both in American history and endowment, because of this American’s ought to urge foreigners to participate as American residents who make good on charges, vote in races and work legitimately (Staver, 2013). Migration laws should comprise of reasonable fines, timings to hang tight for their hearings, an appropriate personal investigation ought to be done, affirmation with respect to decent character and unwaveringness towards America by learning their local language . The Bible with respect to the issue of migration expresses that individuals need to settle on to settle on a decision between welcome the migrants which will guide them towards unending heaven and not welcoming the foreigners will guide them towards perpetual punishment. (Staver, 2013) In this paper, we will examine what the Bible says with respect to the issue of migration and will likewise put light on the issue of Iraqi foreigners and what the Christians need to state about it.â The subject of movement typically makes a hole between dedicated parishioners and denominational priests, various Catholic diocesans accept that unlawful outsiders ought to be given authority pardon. They are continually working in the kindness of open outskirts. The sets of principles expressed by their religion are the reason for some American approaches and their governmental issues. The Christians who structure the approaches and the Christian residents of the United States may maybe need to consi der how the Bible ganders at the issue of migration. The United States has a broad relationship with Christianity and its impact on the procedure of policymaking. The Bible obviously states rules about certain issues of open approach making, anyway on a couple of issues nothing is said plainly so individuals themselves need to decipher what the Bible is stating.  (Edwards, 2009) The Bible has told its kin the job God has decided for the Civil Government of the nation. It determines that those with power need to keep up peace in the nation, care for the residents and punish the individuals who carry out a wrongdoing.  (Edwards, 2009) In 1 Peter 2:13-14 NIV it is stated: â€Å"Submit yourselves for the good of the Lord to each authority organized among men: regardless of whether to the ruler, as the preeminent power, or to governors, who are sent by him to rebuff the individuals who foul up and to recognize the individuals who do right.† This discloses to us that the indivi duals who are causing the laws to have an intense obligation given to them.â

Leadership Styles Essay Example

Administration Styles Essay In considering the different authority styles, I found that many, if not the entirety of the styles we secured have some level of pertinence to most people groups administration rehearses. A couple notwithstanding, appear to stand apart from the rest. I will audit these different styles independently. The initiative styles and approaches that will be engaged upon are: the Trait Approach (Northouse 15), Skills Approach (Northouse 39), Style Approach (Northouse 69) and the Situational Approach (Northouse 89). I will talk about the five inquiries each pioneer should pose of themselves while drawing in a group to accomplish an objective. In conclusion, I will take a gander at passionate insight administration abilities, additionally alluded to as EQ, (Northouse 23) . Quality Approach The Trait Approach to administration infers that so as to be a viable pioneer, there are particular sorts of attributes that you would need to be brought into the world with. These attribute qualities have been recognized by a few scientists. As I would see it, the rundown is so tremendous, one would be unable to not discover in any event a not many that they could connect with themselves. The capacity to stand apart among the majority seems, by all accounts, to be a qualifier also. There appear to be some reliable characteristics present in the authority assessments I led. They are: insight, fearlessness, assurance, uprightness and friendliness (Northouse 19). While there is a lot of contention as to whether one should intrinsically have these characteristics, there is by all accounts a general understanding that the nearness of them have the effect when being viewed as or not to be a successful pioneer. Abilities Approach We will compose a custom exposition test on Leadership Styles explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now We will compose a custom paper test on Leadership Styles explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer We will compose a custom paper test on Leadership Styles explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer The Skills Approach to authority shares the idea of being founded on qualities nonetheless, it infers that albeit ulitmately there are explicit attributes important to be a fruitful pioneer, there is chance to learn and build up these abilities. The aptitudes approach idea summizes that there should be the nearness of three essential regulatory abilities specialized, human and reasonable. Specialized expertise relate explicitly to information and bent to apply important strategies just as work explicit hardware and programming programs. Human aptitude is the capacity to work solidly with individuals. Having this ability and being compelling at joining it into your administration style is a basic factor to the accomplishment of any objective situated collective endeavor. On the off chance that you can't persuade individuals to finish the jobs needing to be done, disappointment would be up and coming. The third authoritative aptitude is the capacity to be applied in your reasoning. You should have the option to see the master plan so as to be vital. On the off chance that one can't imagine and grasp the general idea, the organization/association won't prevail with regards to meeting objectives. Style Approach The Style Approach centers basically around conduct. Conduct in such manner is separated into two zones. Undertaking focused and relationship situated. An effective pioneer finds a harmony between the two. Being able to flip between these two regions is just a large portion of the fight. A pioneer should likewise know when it is proper to apply one instead of the other. There might be conditions while progressing in the direction of one objective the two practices should be applied. A decent pioneer ought to have the option to decide when and how that ought to occur. This style is one that I can obviously identify with. I work in an industry in which a major piece of our prosperity lies in our capacity to oversee connections. So as to do that, you should have the option to decide the kind of individual you are cooperating with and dependent on that assurance, you should adjust your methodology and correspondence procedure. Style survey, Situational Approach The Situational Approach to initiative is one that I am very acquainted with in any case, it is one that I don’t fundamentally think I grasp to the extent that I should. I wind up feeling that if an individual has been recruited to play out specific obligations, there ought to be a center competency level present that empowers them to finish the errands they are alloted. I have consistently been against small scale overseeing and the Situational Style of initiative felt like that training. This administration style calls for me to take who I am driving and what their capacities are and what level of dircection I decide they would require to finish the jobs that needs to be done without getting baffled by either absence of heading or absence of strengthening. In the event that I needed to compare it, I would state that it is like driving a stick move. I have to realize when to put my foot on the gas and when to drive the clasp to get into gear. Five Leadership Questions As a pioneer, there are 5 inquiries one must pose to oneself while drawing in a group to accomplish an objective. To begin with, decide and contemplate what is as of now working. There is a familiar axiom on the off chance that it isn’t broke, don’t fix it. In the event that there are dependable practices and strategies that have prompted accomplishing objectives, and the objective itself has not changed, there is no compelling reason to re-make the wheel. Also, lucidity is vital in respect what factors drove the achievement. On the off chance that you can't pinpoint what varibles moved the dial, you cannot provide successful guidance to a group as far as the best way to take. Third, realizing the goal is important to address the initial two inquiries precisely. On the off chance that the goal is fluffy, it is extremely unlikely to decide the most ideal approach to arrive at purpose of appearance. Fourth is characterizing the benfits of arriving at objective for partners. These incorporate self-delight, hierarchical productivity, rewards, spending endorsement and regard of associates to give some examples. The fiifh question that is important tto ask is the thing that more should be possible, what should be possible better and what ought to be done any other way to acheieve the most significant level of accomplishment. When this inquiry is presented, engage and urge the group to share their thoughts. Meetings to generate new ideas are a priceless discussion for growing new ideas and approaches. It is the ideal setting for deciding new methodologies by giving a wide cluster of points of view. Passionate Intelligence Theory Emotional Intelligence â€EQ or Emotional Quotient is a social model that shows 5 key abilities. They comprise of being in contact with and mindful of your feelings, self-guideline by manging those feelings fittingly, having the option to self-rouse, having compassion by being touchy to the feelings of others and adequately overseeing connections. Notwithstanding having an essential attention to these skills, it is important for to know how to incoporate them into an authority style. Proficient trustworthiness is significant and a decent pioneer will consistently be aware of controlling their feelings. A viable pioneer figures out how to step back for a second and understand that they can't change different people groups practices yet they can change the manner in which they respond to them. I despite everything hold quick to my expert conclusion with respect to what the I accept the prescribed procedures ought to be, in any case, learning and seeing how what drives individuals to do what they do, say what they state and lead like they lead is impacted by how they are â€Å"hard-wired†, has helped me to value the point of view of others also. Finding out about the assorted variety of initiative styles has helped me value the point of view of others despite the fact that they contrast from mine.

A Divas Reputation for Aretha Franklin - myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Examine about theDivas Reputation for Aretha Franklin and Diana Ross. Answer: The article intends to talk about the different issues that are engaged with framing the notoriety of Fairouz as a Diva. A diva is a very capable lady. The term was recently used to allude the stars in the dramas. With the adjustment in time, the term has started to be utilized to allude other melodic kinds. Presently it has a progressively broad implication to allude the amazingly capable female performers. Entertainers like Aretha Franklin, Diana Ross, Patsy Cline and Madonna have all been named as divas, alongside some other ladies. These entertainers are presumed for their melodic ability and elegance just as their way of life and exhibitions (Urkevich 2014). A portion of these divas partner extraordinary ability however touchiness and hazardous characters. This is presumably the motivation behind why the term diva has been begun to be utilized to allude to a lady who is difficult to be managed. Be that as it may, the diva like Fiarouz was rumored for her delicate, considerate ch aracter, liberality and typically was increasingly occupied with her profession. Characteristics of a diva: Fairouzs story of development from outrageous destitution to incredible riches contacted the core of the Arab world. The accounts of her adolescence in clothes have become the stuffs of legends. This diva who couldn't bear the cost of a radio has gotten one of the most celebrated and fruitful female vocalist ever. She began from an unassuming foundation as a tune part in radio broadcast of Lebanon. Fairouz was immediately distinguished for her one of a kind voice from the gathering and in this manner she began her excursion in the melodic world. The nostalgic and nationalistic music and the heavenly voice of Fairouz crossed the limits of countries and ages. She earned the title Safeerat Al Nojoom and Jarat Al Qamar for her expert Palestinian music. She was known as the spirit of Lebanon and Callas of Arabia. Rumi, the music executive of Lebanese radio broadcast made her lead soloist and given her the stage name, Fairouz. Fairouz showed up on Lebanese and Syrian wireless transmissions when the radio was prominently overwhelmed by the Egyptian artists. The style of her music and her novel voice represented an intelligible distinction between the conventional Egyptian music that went on for 30 minutes and her advanced, straightforward melodies, composed by her better half Individual life: In 1947, Fairouz was only 14 when Mohammad Fleifel found her and gave her confirmation in National Conservatory of Music. After that Lebanese audience members acknowledged her with full energy and this drove her gathering with the Rahbani siblings, Assi and Mansour. They were lyricist and writer of present day tunes (Burkhalter, Dickinson and Harbert 2013). The group of these three originally got the open presentation when the Rahbanis formed the tunes by receiving the advanced western tunes to Arabic melodies. In any case, this adaption was just a presentation yet they came into the spotlight for the melancholic love melodies called Itab (Allen 2012). In all structures, Fairouzs melody described with her imaginative characteristics that offered and arrived at the core of the individuals regardless of various national and social foundation. After the marriage of Fairouz and Assi, when they visited Egypt, the focal point of Arabic culture, theater, melody, and film, Fairouz again won the core of the commended authors, lyricist and movie producers. Around then she was unable to accept those proposals as she was going to conceive an offspring of Ziad, who later became writer like his dad. Effect of innovation in Fairouzs vocation: The credit of advancing Fairouz and her prosperity goes to her initial accounts and wireless transmission advancements, which was spread equal all through Middle East. The aversion could be heard in the artists voices preceding Fairouz as they couldn't associate with their audience members yet the group of Fairouz aced the expertise of recording. Thusly, the intrigue of her tunes was much more clear and she bridled herself for additional rivalries. Mohammed Abdulwahhab as of now presented the western instruments and utilization of ensembles in the Arabic music (Chen 2012). He tied a bunch with this trio and used the radio innovation at its best. Her contemporary Um Kalthoum was occupied in her dramatic exhibitions with her muddled vocals, could just arrive at the lower common laborers of Cairo though, Fairouz arrived at each family unit with her fresh and sentimental voice (Kraidy 2015). Her vinyl records resounding the wistfulness fabricated the demeanor of profound established cred ibility. Later when the Arab music world went under the impact of western music, Fairouz began to work with her child Ziad. She turned into the piece of development with Jazz music, old style customary music and the people music. Teaming up with Ziad, she captivated the new age audience members of Arab world (Mejcher-Atassi 2013). Individual and open characteristics: Fairouz had a confounding persona. She was saved and private individual and would not like to give individual meetings or appearances aside from stage exhibitions. In arranged likewise she used to stand still before the amplifier. When addressed, she communicated her stage dread as the reason for such propensity. She didn't examine anything with the media after the debates fermented up. She didn't gave any announcements for a considerable length of time. This may be seen as a piece of procedure of keeping up her picture and this outright quietness turned into a piece of her heritage. This cryptic character has made a riddle around Fairouz. Political debates influencing the profession: Fairuz's allure was culturally diverse, reached out toward the West. She had fans from Las Vegas to Paris. These fans probably won't comprehend the words, however that didn't stop her and acclaimed show lobbies were reserved. Be that as it may, in spite of such tremendous prominence, Fairouz was entrapped in the political debates during Lebanons common war in 1970 (Berg 2013). She didn't favor one side and quit acting in the Lebanese lobbies. To her, the melodies were a piece of the political activism to which, the war tired Lebanon was clung. Regardless of these contentions, during this period, she kept on communicating her adoration for brought together Lebanon. In 2008, Fairouz was praised of helping the Syrian insight administrations (Al Obeidyine 2015). A large number of the activists recommended her to boycotted and individuals needed her not to act in Damascus. She didn't give any announcement against anyone, just composed that her presentation ought to be felt from social poi nts of view for she didn't sing for the rulers yet the everyday citizens (Hongur 2016). Be that as it may, her brother by marriage Mansour guarded her choice by saying that her presentation may be a message of adoration and harmony for the Syrians from Lebanon. The disaster hurt her most when after Mansours passing his kids recorded a grievance against her. For the pieces were composed by both the siblings Assi and Mansour, she was unable to perform them without authorization. This prompted the supreme hushing of the diva. A large number of her fans including superstars traveled to Lebanon to challenge the courts orders. In 2013, her child uncovered her affection for Nasrallahs political vision, which cried discussion once more (Haugbolle 2016). In this way, from the above examination it very well may be deducted that Fairouz is one of the best imaginative character of Lebanon ever. She has engaged millions with her charming voice, enthusiastic intrigue and enthusiasm for joined Lebanon. The diva never expressed a solitary word with all due respect in any event, when she was blamed for hostile to patriotism. Regardless of she was restricted in her own nation, Lebanon was constantly present in her heart and music. References: Al Obeidyine, J., 2015. Social office imagining the country: The instance of Rahbani Brothers, Abdel Halim Caracalla the Lebanese society dance.Acta Ethnographica Hungarica,60(1), pp.61-67. Allen, M., 2012. Music for a Goddess. Berg, C., 2013. 'MUSIC'AS A POLITICAL FORCE IN ISLAMIST ORGANISATIONS.Journal of Communications Research,5(4). Burkhalter, T., Dickinson, K. also, Harbert, B.J. eds., 2013.The Arab Avant-garde: Music, Politics, Modernity. Wesleyan University Press. Chen, Y., 2012. The impact of Arab music on European music from instruments.Journal of Henan Institute of Science and Technology,1, p.023. Haugbolle, S., 2016. The Leftist, the Liberal, and the Space In Between: Ziad Rahbani and Everyday Ideology.Arab examines journal,24(1), p.168. Hongur, G., 2016. Music in Peace Building and Conflict Resolution: The Case of Fairouz.Current Research in Social Sciences,2(3), pp.123-129. Kraidy, M.M., 2015. The legislative issues of progressive VIP in the contemporary Arab world.Public Culture,27(1 75), pp.161-183. Mejcher-Atassi, S., 2013. Craftsmanship and Political Dissent in Postwar Lebanon: Walid Sadek's Fi Annani Akbar Min Bikasu [Bigger than Picasso].International Journal of Middle East Studies,45(3), pp.535-560. Urkevich, L., 2014.Music and Traditions of the Arabian Peninsula: Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar. Routledge.

The Unusual Mystery Into Essay for College Samples

The Unusual Mystery Into Essay for College Samples If quality work is all you want, you should look at giving us an opportunity to obey you and supply you with college essay help that will provide you with value for each penny you pay. My experience in college gave me the opportunity to sharpen my skills in the specialty of my pick. Our service is utilized by students all around the world. A superb education is something which all of us aspire to have. The Basics of Essay for College Samples The introduction must incorporate a concise background on the primary points of discussion, the objective of developing such work and clear indications on the way the assignment is being organized. Regardless of what's the aim of your essay, there's a preset number of points you will be expected to handle. In order to earn a point, you need to have one. The point is to make sure you communicate your information in the most suitable way possible. Essay for College Samples - the Conspirac y Learn more about the way the essay is scored. Essays are your very best friend. The essay offers you a chance to reveal how effectively you are able to read and comprehend a passage and compose an essay analyzing the passage. Biography Essays are extremely different from the autobiographical ones where the writer is the field of discussion or the book. Possessing a crystal clear and structured plan is the foundation for any very good bit of writing, and a college essay is the same. Bridget's essay is extremely strong, but there continue to be a couple little things that could be made better. Possessing good essay examples provides the reader an in-depth and on-the-court idea about what a well structured and coherent essay appears like. A fantastic college essay introduction is essential to making your essay stand out, so there's lots of pressure to receive it exactly perfect. Debt, trade and globalization will likewise be analyzed as factors that resulted in escalation of the issue. As a consequence, spending money to deal with your essays could possibly be challenging. You may also speak about how you might respond differently later on. Even in the event that you land up finding one, you aren't sure of its quality or the credibility of the info. It is possible to find more in the net. Perhaps you are reluctant to find help because you were once conned by means of a scam on-line help. Generally, searching over the web for free essays are often quite challenging. The Key to Successful Essay for College Samples Running through the fundamental outline of your paper in the introduction offers readers an opportunity to preview what your paper is all about and your stance on the matter or maybe to evaluate how objective you're be. In truth, it's probably the most essential part of your essay, as it draws in the reader. There are a number of easy steps that you may take to make sure your introduction hooks the reader's interest and sets the stage for the remainder of your paper. The introduction may have tons of responsibility but that doesn't indicate you should sweat writing it. New Step by Step Roadmap for Ess ay for College Samples Our admission essay examples can prove that we're here in order to provide simply the very best assistance to assure you which you submit an application essay you can be confident in. Numerous quotations might also get the job done. A quick sentence is utilised to make the emotional resolution of the admission essay. College life includes writing essays and application letters whether you're in the business of company or literature. To offer you a remedy about how to compose an impressive college essay, here are a number of ideas you may wish to consider. Now, employing a sample college essay isn't the exact same as plagiarism. Your college application essay is the solution. The Basics of Essay for College Samples If you don't, you may actually hurt your odds of admission. If you would like to create a college essay which works, you will need to provide importance on the content you will give the admissions officer of your intended university with. If you're going to write college admission essay all on your own then don't neglect the suitable structure of the paper. An admission essay is a sort of essay that consists of student's individual statements and her or his vision of a specific college. Essay for College Samples: the Ultimate Convenience! Employing a hook that also sets you up for a typical thread throughout the essay is a remarkable method to set up flow. Writing a college essay can arrive in various forms and styles based on your taste. The structure of private statement is easier. Ultimately, the detail of real speech makes the scene pop.

A Brief Note On Professional Seminar Network Security

FA 15 - CS699D - PROFESSIONAL SEMINAR Network Security Abstract Network Security The Internet continues to grow exponentially. Personal, government, and business applications continue to multiply on the Internet, with immediate benefits to end users. However, these network-based applications and services can pose security risks to individuals and to the information resources of companies and governments. Information is an asset that must be protected. Without adequate network security, many individuals, businesses, and governments risk losing that asset. Network security is the process by which digital information assets are protected. The†¦show more content†¦Specialty areas within an industry often have their own brands of jargon, as well, and the computer security sub-field is no exception. It is not possible to provide a complete glossary of security-related terms within the scope of this chapter, but in this section, we will define some of the more common words and phrases that you may encounter as you begin to explore the fascinating world of computer security: ââ€"   Attack: In the context of computer/network security, an attack is an attempt to access resources on a computer or a network without authorization, or to bypass security measures that are in place. ââ€"   Audit: To track security-related events, such as logging onto the system or network, accessing objects, or exercising user/group rights or privileges. ââ€"   Availability of data: Reliable and timely access to data. ââ€"   Breach: Successfully defeating security measures to gain access to data or resources without authorization, or to make data or resources available to unauthorized persons, or to delete or alter computer fi les. ââ€"   Brute force attack: Attempt to â€Å"crack† passwords by sequentially trying all possible combinations of characters until the right combination works to allow access. ââ€"   Buffer: A holding area for data. ââ€"   Buffer overflow: A way to crash a system by putting more data into a buffer than the buffer is able to hold. ââ€"   CIA triad: Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability of data. Ensuring the

Education is Necessary for Society to Function Essay

Education is a powerful tool that supplies a plethora of information to anyone who is willing to learn. There are many degrees to being an educated person as education begins at birth and ends at death. Without education, society as a whole would seize to exist; the knowledge to invent new drugs to cure different diseases would not be available, new societies would not be built, and technology could not move forward. Education supplies people with the morals, beliefs, skills, and knowledge that they can utilize throughout their lives. There is a common misconception that the education of a person begins when they enter into a school system, however, this is simply not the case. The learning process of a person begins when they enter†¦show more content†¦Generational education is an integral part of what makes the world go round. An education is thought to be a privilege in our society. There are a lot of people that cannot afford to go to college to obtain a higher educatio n. The people that cannot afford to go to college are still an important part of our society because they obtained a high degree of knowledge and life skills from their parents, guardians, or other role models in their life. There are millions of jobs in this world that are available to people that do not have a college education but do have some form of education through the knowledge they gained by graduating and earning a high school diploma. Many men in our society today work in the oil field without a college degree. Without these men, oil production would go down or stop completely. Although these men do not have college degrees, they do have some form of education. Although there are millions of jobs that do not require a college degree, there are still millions of jobs that do require a person to have a higher education through a college diploma. The people that can afford a higher education are thought to be the people that succeed in our society, such as doctors, lawyers, and a rocket scientist. It does takes a college degree to gain the knowledge and education to advance in new technology and create new societies. The scientists are a valuable part of our society because they create new drugs and treatments thatShow MoreRelatedEducation As A Social Function991 Words   |  4 PagesAccording to John Dewey education plays a large role in the development of an individual and it is an element that separates humans from other animals. It is important to try to comprehend what Dewey means by this and in order to do so the following must be done. First, one must understand the role education plays in an individual and Dewey’s notions of education in the areas of growth, direction and social function. 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Legal Issues in the Cloud IEEE Cloud Computing

Question: Describe about the Legal Issues in the Cloud for IEEE Cloud Computing? Answer: Introduction Every organization is trying to cope up with the modern world to meet their client expectations which increase their enthusiasm to look for solutions to work in a competitive environment. Information technology equipmentand services are essential for efficient functioning of enterprise. Significant capabilities from IT attract both the customers and providers of the solution. Though to attract new business opportunities the company has to invest in innovative direction to conduct business. The invention of cloud computing is a revolutionary change in IT system and IT implementation. This technology completely changes the way in which an IT companyscale, deploy, , develop, , update,invent and maintain. This service will provide the company with many added benefits like on demand, efficiency, broad network access,self-service, elasticity, measured service and also business agility. Findings And Analysis Cloud Computing Cloud computing is a model which enableseasy on demand network access to the shared pool of customizable computer resources like, service, storage,networks, application and services which can be provided instantly and developed without the requirement of a large number of resources. In cloud computing the enterprises outsource their information to cloud storage providers at a very minimalistic rate rather than maintaining own servers which are an expensive liability to the companies and hence saves a lot of financial investment(Tari, 2014). Depending upon the service they provide cloud computing has three different broad categories Software-as-a-service provides single application to the clients through the web browser and hence the requirement to invest in software license or servers is reduced and from provider side only one application is required. Therefore a lot of money is saved in the investments. Platform-as-a-service provides the providers with a cloud environment where the customers develop application which runs on the providers environment and then delivered to the user via the internet. Infrastructure-as-a-service provides the organization to outsource the hardware equipments used to construct a support operation including storage devices, servers processors, coolers and networking components. The service provider who owns the equipment and is responsible for the maintenance of it. The clients just pay as per the usage(Sill, 2014). There are different types of model of cloud computing depends upon their usage the user and the service provider shares over the IT resources used. In the traditional model the user had almost total control over the service but in the other models it is shared limitedly due to the dependency of internet connection providers(Ranjan, 2014). There are mainly four deployment models of cloud computing Private cloud- this is for exclusive use by a single organization consisting of a multiple number of consumers. Services are available within the organization via intranet. It is safest but also the most expensive one. Community cloud- this cloud is shared by a group of communities of the same organization. Public cloud- it is provisioned for open use to the general public. Hybrid cloud- it consists multiple cloud establishment that are kept as separate entities but are bound and connected by technology that enables data and application portability(Rana, 2014). The choice of deployment model is largely based on the technological and monetary holdings of the investor and the might for risk. If the company has a setup already it can manage to build its own cloud. If the company does not have the setup but it has the financial means then also the hybrid model is suitable. But if the company doesnt have the setup as well the financial means then it should go for the public model(Martin-Flatin, 2014). Comparison Of Traditional Model With Cloud Computing Traditional Model In traditional model when any company decided to operate on its own IT infrastructure. It was forced to bear all the expenses of servers, networking, software etc. the model may not even be used up to its full capacity in the cases of companies starting in a new business venture and starting to setup clients, so the company had to bear all the expenses throughout this period. Studies have shown that companies who adapt to fast changing conditions in short time will always be more successful than its competitors. Sometimes due to traditional models requiring more time for up gradation it is not able to suffice the increasing business needs of the enterprise due to development and growth and hence it depreciates the demand factor of the companies(Khan, 2014). Cloud Based Model In the cloud based model the organization does not has to invest in the expensive infrastructure at the beginning of their venture which in turn is cheaper and saves a lot of investments for the company. During the increasing demand of clients the servers are highly flexible and provide allocation of assistance whenever required and hence further investment of time and money is saved from up gradation of infrastructure. Therefore investment in cloud computing reduces the risk of losing money on development of additional revenues and loss of customers(IEEE Transactions on Cloud Computing Call for Papers, 2014). Economics Of Cloud Computing The main reasons for companies to shift from traditional techniques to cloud computing is the economic advantage. The main advantage is that one can use only what is required and pay for that itself. Building ones own IT infrastructure is very expensive and time consumable project and hence it is unbearable by most companies. For a small company to invest so much money at once is huge risk as it also decreases the financial liquidity of the company. The application of cloud computing decreases such chances by paying for only the services you need and depreciates the chances of high amount of monetary outflow during initial stages of development of the company(IEEE Transactions on Cloud Computing, 2013). The absence of up-front capital allows capital to be re-directed to core business investment. The absence of incurred CapEx means that there will be no increase in balance sheet and therefore no decrease in return on investments. Assessment The companies can determine the total cost of a new product or system by the help of Total Cost of Ownership (TCO). It involves the total cost of acquisition, installation, operation, maintenance, and disposal of the assets of a company. To present the application of TCO application we can undertake a case study where a fashion store retailer with 12 stores spread across New Zealand. They used to host their own server infrastructure to provide retail environment and point to point business which required a private network, which created problems in keeping the stores in sync. Then they decided to migrate to a cloud based solution and moved point to point sale to an online application sale backed by a cloud provider, thus gaining cost saving and no requirement of an IT infrastructure. Before using the cloud service their investment per annum excluding the hardware was about 30k $. The cloud provider would also provide them with a number of business activities like to manage email, calendar and contacts by google apps. Circulating and sharing documents by drop box. Accounting entrusted to zero. All sales platform, including back office and distribution office production is carried by platform provided by Vend(Collins, 2014). Business agility is the ability of a business to get used to rapidly and cost efficient manner according to the business ventures. Business agility is the greatest cloud benefit. Self service provisioning, workload mobility management and automation are all results of cloud computing. Though there are certain things which have to be kept in mind before investing in cloud computing like reducing operational risk, cloud management is moving the business from own management to a third party management and quality and safety is crucial. There has to be precise terms of contract made with the service provider as customers give up some control to the vendors (Choo, 2014). Conclusion This paper depicts that cloud computing idea of IT implementation has number of benefits. The model is a viable alternative to traditional management techniques. One should also go through the pros and cons of cloud computing before investing as it also has some negativities of data security and relinquishing part of operations to vendors. Cloud computing means increased economic efficiency and less control means greater economic benefits and vice versa. Still cloud computing technology should be widely investigated and based on risk analysis. References Choo, K. (2014). Legal Issues in the Cloud. IEEE Cloud Computing, 1(1), pp.94-96. Collins, E. (2014). Intersection of the Cloud and Big Data. IEEE Cloud Computing, 1(1), pp.84-85. IEEE Transactions on Cloud Computing Call for Papers. (2014). IEEE Cloud Computing, 1(4), pp.87-87. IEEE Transactions on Cloud Computing. (2013). IEEE Transactions on Cloud Computing, 1(2), pp.229-229. Khan, S. (2014). Elements of Cloud Adoption. IEEE Cloud Computing, 1(1), pp.71-73. Martin-Flatin, J. (2014). Challenges in Cloud Management. IEEE Cloud Computing, 1(1), pp.66-70. Rana, O. (2014). The Costs of Cloud Migration. IEEE Cloud Computing, 1(1), pp.62-65. Ranjan, R. (2014). The Cloud Interoperability Challenge. IEEE Cloud Computing, 1(2), pp.20-24. Sill, A. (2014). Cloud Standards and the Spectrum of Development. IEEE Cloud Computing, 1(3), pp.15-19. Tari, Z. (2014). Security and Privacy in Cloud Computing. IEEE Cloud Computing, 1(1), pp.54-57.

Battle of Fort Sumter in the American Civil War

Battle of Fort Sumter in the American Civil War The Battle of Fort Sumter was fought April 12-14, 1861, and was the opening engagement of the American Civil War. In the wake of President Abraham Lincolns election in November 1860, the state of South Carolina began debating secession. On December 20, a vote was taken in which the state decided to leave the Union. Over the next several weeks, South Carolinas lead was followed by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. As each state left, local forces began seizing federal installations and property. Among those military installations to hold out were Forts Sumter and Pickens in Charleston, SC and Pensacola, FL. Concerned that aggressive action could lead the remaining slave states to secede, President James Buchanan elected not to resist the seizures.   Situation in Charleston In Charleston, the Union garrison was led by Major Robert Anderson. A capable officer, Anderson was a protà ©gà © of General Winfield Scott, the noted Mexican-American War commander. Placed in command of the Charleston defenses on November 15,1860, Anderson was a native of Kentucky who had formerly owned slaves. In addition to his even temperament and skills as an officer, the administration hoped his appointment would be viewed as a diplomatic gesture. Arriving as his new post, Anderson immediately faced heavy pressure from the local community as he attempted to improve the Charleston fortifications. Based at Fort Moultrie on Sullivans Island, Anderson was dissatisfied with its landward defenses which had been compromised by sand dunes.   Nearly as tall as the forts walls, the dunes could have facilitated any potential attack on the post. Moving to have the dunes cleared away, Anderson quickly came under fire from the Charleston newspapers and was criticized by city leaders. Forces and Commanders Union Major Robert Anderson85 men Confederate Brigadier General P.G.T. BeauregardAbout 500 men A Near Siege As the final weeks of the fall progressed, tensions in Charleston continued to rise and the garrison of the harbor forts was increasingly isolated. Additionally, the South Carolina authorities placed picket boats in the harbor to observe the activities of the soldiers. With the secession of South Carolina on December 20, the situation facing Anderson grew more grave. On December 26, feeling that his men would not be safe if they remained at Fort Moultrie, Anderson ordered them to spike its guns and burn the carriages. This done, he embarked his men in boats and directed them to sail out to Fort Sumter. Located on a sand bar at the mouth of the harbor, Fort Sumter was believed to be one of the strongest fortresses in the world. Designed to house 650 men and 135 guns, construction of Fort Sumter had begun 1827 and was still not complete. Andersons actions enraged Governor Francis W. Pickens who believed that Buchanan had promised that Fort Sumter would not be occupied. In actuality, Buchanan had made no such promise and had always carefully crafted his correspondence with Pickens to allow maximum flexibility of action in regard to the Charleston harbor forts. From Andersons standpoint, he was simply following orders from Secretary of War John B. Floyd which instructed him to shift his garrison to whichever fort you may deem most proper to increase its power of resistance should fighting commence. Despite this, the leadership of South Carolina viewed Andersons actions to be a breach of faith and demanded that he turn over the fort. Refusing, Anderson and his garrison settled in for what essentially became a siege. Resupply Attempts Fail In an effort to resupply Fort Sumter, Buchanan ordered the ship Star of the West to proceed to Charleston. On January 9, 1861, the ship was fired upon by Confederate batteries, manned by cadets from the Citadel, as it attempted to enter the harbor. Turning to depart, it was hit by two shells from Fort Moultrie before escaping. As Andersons men held the fort through February and March, the new Confederate government in Montgomery, AL debated how to handle the situation. In March, newly elected Confederate President Jefferson Davis placed Brigadier General P.G.T. Beauregard in charge of the siege. Working to improve his forces, Beauregard conducted drills and training to teach the South Carolina militia how to operate the guns in the other harbor forts. On April 4, having learned that Anderson only had food to last until the fifteenth, Lincoln ordered a relief expedition assembled with an escort provided by the US Navy. In an attempt to ease tensions, Lincoln contacted South Carolina Governor Francis W. Pickens two days later and informed him of the effort. Lincoln stressed that as long as the relief expedition was allowed to proceed, only food would be delivered, however, if attacked, efforts would be made to reinforce the fort. In response, the Confederate government decided to open fire on the fort with the goal of forcing its surrender before the Union fleet could arrive. Alerting Beauregard, he dispatched a delegation to the fort on April 11 to again demand its surrender. Refused, further discussions after midnight failed to resolve the situation. Around 3:20 a.m. on April 12, Confederate authorities alerted Anderson that they would open fire in one hour. The Civil War Begins At 4:30 a.m. on April 12, a single mortar round fired by Lieutenant Henry S. Farley burst over Fort Sumter signaling the other harbor forts to open fire. Anderson did not reply until 7:00 when Captain Abner Doubleday fired the first shot for the Union. Low on food and ammunition, Anderson endeavored to protect his men and minimize their exposure to danger. As a result, he restricted them to only using the forts lower, casemated guns which were not situated to effectively damage the other harbor forts. Bombarded for thirty-four hours, Fort Sumters officers quarters caught on fire and its main flag pole was felled. While Union troops were rigging a new pole, the Confederates dispatched a delegation to inquire if the fort was surrendering. With his ammunition almost exhausted, Anderson agreed to a truce at 2:00 PM on April 13. Prior to evacuating, Anderson was permitted to fire a 100-gun salute to the US flag. During this salute a pile of cartridges caught fire and exploded, killing Private Daniel Hough and mortally wounding Private Edward Galloway. The two men were the only fatalities to occur during the bombardment. Surrendering the fort at 2:30 p.m. on April 14, Andersons men were later transported to the relief squadron, then offshore, and placed aboard the steamer Baltic. Aftermath of the Battle Union losses in the battle numbered two killed and the loss of the fort while the Confederates reported four wounded. The bombardment of Fort Sumter was the opening battle of the Civil War and launched the nation into four years of bloody fighting. Anderson returned north and toured as a national hero. During the war, several attempts were made to recapture the fort with no success. Union forces finally took possession of the fort after Major General William T. Shermans troops captured Charleston in February 1865. On April 14, 1865, Anderson returned to the fort to re-hoist the flag he had been forced to lower four years earlier.

The Story and Lyrics Behind The First Noel in French

The Story and Lyrics Behind The First Noel in French Aujourdhui le Roi des Cieux is the French version of The First Noel. The two are sung to the same tune, but the words are different. The translation given here is the literal translation of the Christmas carol Aujourdhui le Roi des Cieux. The song has been covered by a variety of popular French artists, including Michaà «l, but the French version of The First Noel is most commonly sung today by a church and lay choirs.   The History of The First Noel   The First Noel very likely began as a song that was passed along orally and sung in the streets outside of churches, since early Christian congregants participated little in the Catholic mass. The term Noà «l  in the French version (Noel in English) apparently  derives from a Latin word for news. Thus, the song is about a crier, in this case, an angel, spreading the good news that Jesus Christ (le Roi des Cieux) is born.   Although thought to be a 18th-century English carol, the  structure of The First Noel resembles that of medieval French epic poems, chansons de geste  like La Chanson de Roland memorializing the Charlemagne legends; these poems were likewise not written down. The song was not transcribed until 1823 when it was published in London as part of an early anthology called  Some Ancient Christmas Carols. The English title appears in The Cornish Songbook (1929), which could mean The First Noel originated in Cornwall, situated across the Channel from France.   Christmas hymns, on the other hand, were written down as early as the 4th century A.D. in the form of  Latin songs glorifying the concept of Jesus Christ as the son of God, an important element of orthodox Christian theology at the time.  Many hymns were drawn, for instance, from the 12  long poems of the fourth-century Roman poet and jurist Aurelius Clemens  Prudentius. French Lyrics and English Translation Here is the French version of The First Noel and the English translation:Aujourdhui le Roi des Cieux au milieu de la nuitVoulut naà ®tre chez nous de la Vierge MariePour sauver le genre humain, larracher au pà ©chà ©Ramener au Seigneur ses enfants à ©garà ©s.Today the King of Heaven in the middle of the nightWas born on Earth of the Virgin MaryTo save the human race, pull it from sinReturn the Lords lost children to him.Noà «l, Noà «l, Noà «l, Noà «l Jà ©sus est nà ©, chantons Noà «l  !Noel, Noel, Noel, NoelJesus is born, let us sing Noel!En ces lieux durant la nuit demeuraient les bergersQui gardaient leurs troupeaux dans les champs de Judà ©eOr, un ange du Seigneur apparut dans les cieuxEt la gloire de Dieu resplendit autour deux.In these parts during the night stayed the shepherdsWho kept their flocks in Judeas fieldsNow, an angel of the Lord appeared in the skiesAnd the glory of God glowed around them.RefrainRefrainLange dit :  « Ne craignez pas ; soyez tous dans la joieUn Sauveur vous est nà ©, cest le Christ, votre RoiPrà ¨s dici, vous trouverez dans là ©table, couchà ©Dun lange emmaillotà ©, un enfant nouveau-nà ©Ã‚  Ã‚ ».The angel said, Do not fear; everyone be joyfulA Savior is born to you, its Christ, your KingNearby, you will find in the stable, put to bedWrapped up in a flannel blanket, a newborn child.RefrainRefrain

Donoghue v Stevenson 1932 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Donoghue v Stevenson 1932 - Essay Example The appellant drank the beer and only realized that there were remains of decomposed snail when she was about to finish taking the ginger beer. The appellant claimed that at the time of noticing the remains of the decomposed snail, it made her suffer from shock and complications related with gastro enteritis. She therefore sued the manufacturers of the beer for breach of duty of care and for being negligent giving rise to the appeal case to be determined. This case set the base for negligence cases and the factors that must be determined in order that it is established. The importance of the Donoghue case is that it set a foundation for cases based on breach of duty of care and the requirement for payment of damages and liability in case of a breach of duty of care. Donohue argued that the respondent as a manufacturer of a product meant for human consumption and that it should ensure that any foodstuff that it packaged in its products were fit for human consumption and not noxious in nature. ... The fact that it was bottled by the respondent and labeled with his name and the bottle sealed, it was upon the respondent to ensure that they have a system that would stop the snails from getting into the bottle. She therefore contended that the failure by the respondent to take these precautions led to her predicament and therefore it should be held liable for negligence. The respondent Mr Stevenson argued that as a producer of a product, he had no duty that it owed to its customers apart from that that comes about due to contractual obligations. He argued that the case would introduce a new principle that was not present previously, that of goods that are intended for human consumption sold to the public in a form in which it would have been difficult to investigate. Previously, the exception in such cases were that the goods should have been deemed to be dangerous in the strictest sense and if the manufacturer knew of the danger in the good. The decision in this case was not unan imous as some of the judges dissented. Lord Buckmaster and Lord Tomlin dissented from the judgment and dismissed the appeal on the basis of the case of Mullin v Barr1 where Lord Anderson stated that in cases where the goods of the defendant are those with a wider distribution all over Scotland. Moreover, it would be imprudent to make them liable for every other claims by the plaintiffs or the members of the public as they would be made to pay for the damages incurred which could not be possibly investigated. By citing the case of Winterbottom v Wright2, Lord Tomlin argued that allowing the appeal would be an injustice to the respondent as torts would always be brought against the

Art Museum Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Art Museum - Research Paper Example He is considered a modern artist, which means that he belongs to the era that roughly extended from the 1980’s to the 1970’s, and of a movement that is characterized by a tendency towards experimentation and abstraction (Cahoone). However, despite the undeniable fact that his work was fresh and thought provoking, he shied away from creating abstract artwork, and stuck to the classical technique of oil painting. His paintings were composed and crisp, marked with the influence of the realist painter Gustave Courbet. With superficial examination one might declare that there is nothing modern about Balthus’ work. However, there is an indisputable air of strangeness to his work. This ‘strangeness’ that strikes many as almost disturbing is felt not through the style of painting but rather it was within his depictions and subjects that he displayed his modernism. Balthus’ art is marked with his fascination for the uninnocent sexuality of adolescent girls. Most of his work feature young women in an ordinary setting, but they are shown as naked, or are shown in contorted and suggestive positions. While the artist himself insists that there is no element of sexual provocation in his work (Cahoone), it is difficult to deny the stimulating and sexual nature of most of his work. An example of this would be the oil painting ‘Guitar Lesson’ which was made in 1934. While the title brings to mind an almost domestic scene, the actual painting depicts a young woman half naked with her skirt pulled almost to her waist exposing her bare private parts while she lies across her music instructor’s lap in place of a guitar. Her music instructor, who is a middle aged woman, holds her much as she would hold a guitar, with her right hand clutching the young woman’s hair and the left hand grasping her student’s inner thigh provocatively close to her

Data Preprocessing Essay Example for Free

Data Preprocessing Essay Data Preprocessing 3 Today’s real-world databases are highly susceptible to noisy, missing, and inconsistent data due to their typically huge size (often several gigabytes or more) and their likely origin from multiple, heterogenous sources. Low-quality data will lead to low-quality mining results. â€Å"How can the data be preprocessed in order to help improve the quality of the data and, consequently, of the mining results? How can the data be preprocessed so as to improve the ef? ciency and ease of the mining process? † There are several data preprocessing techniques. Data cleaning can be applied to remove noise and correct inconsistencies in data. Data integration merges data from multiple sources into a coherent data store such as a data warehouse. Data reduction can reduce data size by, for instance, aggregating, eliminating redundant features, or clustering. Data transformations (e. g. , normalization) may be applied, where data are scaled to fall within a smaller range like 0. 0 to 1. 0. This can improve the accuracy and ef? ciency of mining algorithms involving distance measurements. These techniques are not mutually exclusive; they may work together. For example, data cleaning can involve transformations to correct wrong data, such as by transforming all entries for a date ? eld to a common format. In Chapter 2, we learned about the different attribute types and how to use basic statistical descriptions to study data characteristics. These can help identify erroneous values and outliers, which will be useful in the data cleaning and integration steps. Data processing techniques, when applied before mining, can substantially improve the overall quality of the patterns mined and/or the time required for the actual mining.

Comparing Don Juan and Jack Worthing Essay -- Literary Analysis

The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde and Don Juan by Lord Byron are two distinctive pieces in British literature. In both stories, the male characters take center stage. The character of Jack Worthing in The Importance of Being Earnest and Juan in Don Juan share many similarities. Both men are from the upper class, both take an avid interest in the opposite sex, and both are controlled by the women in their lives. The difference between these two characters arises in their outcomes and may stem from the fact that each author is from a distinct literary era. Lord Byron’s work is associated with the Romantic movement, a movement concerned about bringing genuine characteristics to the forefront in order to break barriers between classes. In Don Juan, Juan, after having an affair with a married woman, is sent off to travel by his mother—possibly so he does not have to face society after such a scandal. His affair and subservience shows he is weak. Despite his aristocracy, Bryon shows Juan as a flawed character in order to make him relatable to all classes. Oscar Wilde’s work is considered part of the late Victorian era, a period that was all about appearances. At the end of The Importance of Being Earnest, Jack blackmails his way into marrying a girl of equal status, Gwendolen. This act shows that he is manipulative—everything he does is for his own benefit. Jack is shown to be to concerned about his own appearance and does not care who he hurts in the process. Each author describes each male character’s outcome in relation to the literary movement he was connected to. One similarity Jack and Juan share is that they are both from the upper class. In Don Juan, Lord Byron provides the au... ... Works Cited Craft, Christopher. "Alias Bunbury: Desire and Termination in The Importance of Being Earnest." Jstor.org. University of California Press, 1990. 19-46 Web. 1 May 2012 Clubbe, John. Keats-Shelley Journal Vol. 24. 1975. 152-55. Print Lauber, John. â€Å"Don Juan as Anti-Epic† Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900 Vol. 8, No. 4, Nineteenth Century (Autumn, 1968), pp. 607-619 Lord Byron. â€Å" Don Juan.† The Norton Anthology of English Litearture. 8th ed. Vol. D. New York. Norton. 2006. 670-697.Print "Romanticism." The Free Dictionary. Farlex. Web. 30 Apr. 2012. â€Å"Sigmund Freud Quotes." Sigmund Freud Quotes (Author of the Interpretation of Dreams). Goodreads Inc. Web. 01 May 2012. Wilde, Oscar. â€Å" The Importance of Being Earnest†. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. 8th ed. Vol E. New York. Norton. 2006. 1698-1740Print.

Small Business, Innovation, and Public Policy in the Information Technology Industry

New firms have played a major role in fomenting innovation in information technology. A recent study by Greenwood and Jovanovic [1999] provide one dramatic illustration of these trends. These authors show that a group of â€Å"IT upstarts†Ã¢â‚¬â€firms specializing in computer and communications technologies that went public after 1968—now account for over 4% of the total U. S. equity market capitalization. While some of this growth has come at the expense of incumbent information technology firms, the new market value and technological spillovers created by these new businesses appear to be substantial. The role of new firms in the information technology industries has rekindled interest in the relationship between firm characteristics and innovation. Are small businesses more innovative in general? Are high-technology start-ups particularly important? If the answer to either of these questions is yes, how should policymakers seek to encourage these firms? The relationship between innovation and firm characteristics has been one of the most researched topics in the empirical industrial organization literature. To summarize these discussions and draw some implications for policymakers in a few pages is thus a daunting challenge! Consequently, this essay takes a quite selective approach to these issues. First, I very briefly summarize the academic literature on the relationship between firm size and innovation. This work suggests that there appears to be a very weak relationship between firm size, the tendency to undertake R&D, and the effectiveness of research spending. Small businesses, in aggregate, do not appear to be particularly research-intensive or innovative. I then turn to examining one subset of small businesses that do appear to excel at innovation: venture capital-backed start-ups. I highlight some of the venture-backed firms’ contributions. I also discuss why the success of such firms is not accidental. In particular, I highlight the key problems that the financing of small innovative companies pose, as well as some of the key mechanisms that venture investors employ to guide the innovation process. It is not surprising, then, that venture capital investments are concentrated in information technology industries, and that they appear to pur innovation. Finally, I consider one set of policy issues related to small firms and innovation. In particular, I discuss some recent changes in the intellectual property protection system that appear to favor larger firms. I then argue that this may be an area that would reward increased attention by policy-makers interested in helping innovative small businesses in information technology a nd other high-technology industries. 1. Small Business and Innovation A substantial but largely inconclusive literature examines the relationship between firm size and innovation. These studies have been handicapped by the difficulty of measuring innovative inputs and outputs, as well as the challenges of creating a sample that is free of selection biases and other estimation problems. While a detailed review of this literature is beyond the scope of this piece, the interested reader can turn to surveys by Baldwin and Scott [1987] and Cohen and Levin [1989]. Much of the work in this literature has sought to relate measures of innovative discoveries—whether R&D expenditures, patents, inventions, or other measures—to firm size. Initial studies were undertaken using the largest manufacturing firms; more recent works have employed larger samples and more disaggregated data (e. g. , studies employing data on firms’ specific lines of business). Despite the improved methodology of recent studies, the results have remained inconclusive: even when a significant relationship between firm size and innovation has been found, it has had little economic significance. For instance, Cohen, Levin, and Mowery [1987] concluded that a doubling of firm size only increased the ratio of R&D to sales by 0. 2%. One of the relatively few empirical regularities emerging from studies of technological innovation is the critical role played by small firms and new entrants in certain industries. The role of entrants—typically de novo start-ups—in emerging industries was highlighted, for instance, in the pioneering case study-based research of Jewkes, Sawers, and Stillerman [1958]. Acs and Audretsch [1988] examined this question more systematically. They documented that the contribution of small firms to innovation was a function of industry conditions: the contribution was greatest in immature industries which were relatively unconcentrated. These findings suggested that entrepreneurs and small firms often played a key role in observing where new technologies could be applied to meet customer needs, and rapidly introducing products. These patterns are also predicted in several models of technological competition, many of which were reviewed in Reinganum [1989], as well in several analyses in the organizational behavior literature [several were discussed in Henderson, 1993]. The 1990s have seen several dramatic illustrations of these patterns. Two potentially revolutionary areas of technological innovation—biotechnology and the Internet—were pioneered by smaller entrants. Neither established drug companies nor mainframe computer manufacturers were pioneers in developing these technologies. By and large, small firms did not invent the key genetic engineering techniques or Internet protocols. Rather, the bulk of the enabling technologies were developed with Federal funds at academic institutions and research laboratories. It was the small entrants, however, who were the first to seize upon the commercial opportunities. 2. Venture Capital and Innovation One set of small firms, however, appear to have had a disproportionate effect on innovation: those backed by venture capitalists. Venture capital can be defined as equity or equity-linked investments in young, privately held companies, where the investor is a financial intermediary is typically actively as a director, advisor or even manager of the firm. ) While venture capitalists fund only a few hundred of the nearly one million businesses begun in the United States each year, these firms have a disprop ortionate impact on technological innovation. This claim is supported by a variety of evidence. One measure, while crude, is provided by the firms which â€Å"graduate† to the public marketplace. In the past two decades, about one-third of the companies going public (weighted by value) have been backed by venture investors. A second way to assess these claims is to examine which firms have been funded. Venture capitalists, while contributing a relatively modest share of the total financing, provided critical early capital and guidance to many of the new firms in such emerging industries as biotechnology, computer networking, and the Internet. In some cases, these new firms—utilizing the capital, expertise, and contacts provided by their venture capital investors—established themselves as market leaders. In other instances, they were acquired by larger corporations, or entered into licensing arrangements with such concerns. Consider, for instance, the biotechnology industry. Venture capitalists provided only a small fraction of the external financing raised in the industry, and only 450 out of 1500 firms have received venture financing through 1995. These venture-backed firms, however, accounted for over 85% of the patents awarded and drugs approved for marketing. Similarly, venture capitalists have aggressively backed firms in information technology industries, which accounted for 60% of all venture disbursements in 1998. These have included many of the most successful firms in the industry, including Amazon. com, Cisco Systems, Microsoft, Intel, and Yahoo. A final way to assess the impact of the venture industry is to consider the impact of venture backed firms. Survey results suggest that these investments have powerful impacts. For instance, a mid-1996 survey by the venture organization Kleiner, Perkins, Caufield, and Byers found that the firms that the partnership had financed since its inception in 1971 had created 131,000 jobs, generated $44 billion in annual revenues, and had $84 billion in market capitalization [Peltz, 1996]. While Kleiner, Perkins is one of the most successful venture capital groups, the results are suggestive of the impact of the industry. More systematically, Kortum and Lerner [1998] examining the influence of venture capital on patented inventions in the United States across twenty industries over three decades. They address concerns about causality in several ways, including exploiting a 1979 policy shift that spurred venture capital fundraising. They find that the amount of venture capital activity in an industry significantly increases its rate of patenting. While the ratio of venture capital to R&D has averaged less than 3% in recent years, the estimates suggest that venture capital accounts for about 15% of industrial innovations. They address concerns that these results are an artifact of the use of patent counts by demonstrating similar patterns when other measures of innovation are used in a sample of 530 venture-backed and non-venture-backed firms. Lending particular relevance to an examination of these firms is the tremendous boom in the U. S. venture capital industry in recent years. The pool of venture partnerships has grown ten-fold, from under $4 billion in 1978 to about $75 billion at the end of 1998. Venture capital’s recent growth has outstripped that of almost every class of financial product. It is worth underscoring that the tremendous success of venture-backed firms has not happened by accident. The interactions between venture capitalists and the entrepreneurs that they finance are often complex. They can be understood, however, as a response to the challenges that the financing of emerging growth companies pose. Entrepreneurs rarely have the capital to see their ideas to fruition and must rely on outside financiers. Meanwhile, those who control capital—for instance, pension fund trustees and university overseers—are unlikely to have the time or expertise to invest directly in young or restructuring firms. Some entrepreneurs might turn to other financing sources, such as bank loans or the issuance of public stock, to meet their needs. But because of four key factors, some of the most potentially profitable and exciting firms would be unable to access financing if venture capital did not exist. The first factor, uncertainty, is a measure of the array of potential outcomes for a company or project. The wider the dispersion of potential outcomes, the greater the uncertainty. By their very nature, young companies are associated with significant levels of uncertainty. Uncertainty surrounds whether the research program or new product will succeed. The response of firm’s rivals may also be uncertain. High uncertainty means that investors and entrepreneurs cannot confidently predict what the company will look like in the future. Uncertainty affects the willingness of investors to contribute capital, the desire of suppliers to extend credit, and the decisions of a firm’s managers. If managers are averse to taking risks, it may be difficult to induce them to make the right decisions. Conversely, if entrepreneurs are overoptimistic, then investors want to curtail various actions. Uncertainty also affects the timing of investment. Should an investor contribute all the capital at the beginning, or should he stage the investment through time? Investors need to know how information-gathering activities can address these concerns and when they should be undertaken. The second factor, asymmetric information (or information disparities), is distinct from uncertainty. Because of his day-to-day involvement with the firm, an entrepreneur knows more about his company’s prospects than investors, suppliers, or strategic partners. Various problems develop in settings where asymmetric information is prevalent. For instance, the entrepreneur may take detrimental actions that investors cannot observe: perhaps undertaking a riskier strategy than initially suggested or not working as hard as the investor expects. The entrepreneur might also invest in projects that build up his reputation at the investors’ expense. Asymmetric information can also lead to selection problems. The entrepreneur may exploit the fact that he knows more about the project or his abilities than investors do. Investors may find it difficult to distinguish between competent entrepreneurs and incompetent ones. Without the ability to screen out unacceptable projects and entrepreneurs, investors are unable to make efficient and appropriate decisions. The third factor affecting a firm’s corporate and financial strategy is the nature of its assets. Firms that have tangible assets—e. g. , machines, buildings, land, or physical inventory—may find financing easier to obtain or may be able to obtain more favorable terms. The ability to abscond with the firm’s source of value is more difficult when it relies on physical assets. When the most important assets are intangible, such as trade secrets, raising outside financing from traditional sources may be more challenging. Market conditions also play a key role in determining the difficulty of financing firms. Both the capital and product markets may be subject to substantial variations. The supply of capital from public investors and the price at which this capital is available may vary dramatically. These changes may be a response to regulatory edicts or shifts in investors’ perceptions of future profitability. Similarly, the nature of product markets may vary dramatically, whether due to shifts in the intensity of competition with rivals or in the nature of the customers. If there is exceedingly intense competition or a great deal of uncertainty about the size of the potential market, firms may find it very difficult to raise capital from traditional sources. Venture capitalists have a variety of mechanisms at their disposal to address these changing factors. They will invest in stages, often at increasing valuations. Each refinancing is tied to a re-evaluation of the company and its prospects. In these financings, they will employ complex financing mechanisms, often hybrid securities like convertible preferred equity or convertible debt. These financial structures can potentially screen out overconfident or under-qualified entrepreneurs and reduce the venture capitalists’ risks. They will also shift the mixture of investors from whom a firm acquires capital. Each source—private equity investors, corporations, and the public markets—may be appropriate for a firm at different points in its life. Venture capitalists provide not only introductions to these other sources of capital but certification—a â€Å"stamp of approval† that addresses the concerns of other investors. Finally, once the investment is made, they monitor and work with the entrepreneurs to ensure that the right operational and strategic decisions are made and implemented. 3. Innovation, Small Business, and Public Policy If small firms—or even some subset of small firms—are playing an important role in the innovation process, one policy goal should be to address threats to their future development. This is particularly true of threats that have been created by misguided government policies, however good the intentions of their designers. The area that I believe deserves particular attention relates to the key mechanism for protecting intellectual property, namely patents. The U. S. patent system has undergone a profound shift over the past fifteen years. The strength of patent protection has been dramatically bolstered, and both large and small firms are devoting considerably more effort to seeking patent protection and defending their patents in the courts. Many in the patent community—U. S. Patent and Trademark Office officials, the patent bar, and corporate patent staff—have welcomed these changes. But viewed more broadly, the reforms of the patent system and the consequent growth of patent litigation have created a substantial â€Å"innovation tax† that afflicts some of America's most important and creative small firms. Almost all formal disputes involving issued patents are tried in the Federal judicial system. The initial litigation must be undertaken in a district court. Prior to 1982, appeals of patent cases were heard in the appellate courts of the various circuits. These differed considerably in their interpretation of patent law. Because few appeals of patent cases were heard by the Supreme Court, substantial differences persisted, leading to widespread â€Å"forum shopping† by litigants. In 1982, the U. S. Congress established a centralized appellate court for patent cases, the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit (CAFC). As Robert Merges [1992] observes, While the CAFC was ostensibly formed strictly to unify patent doctrine, it was no doubt hoped by some (and expected by others) that the new court would make subtle alterations in the doctrinal fabric, with an eye to enhancing the patent system. To judge by results, that is exactly what happened. The CAFC's rulings have been more â€Å"pro-patent† than the previous courts. For instance, the circuit courts had affirmed 62% of district court findings of patent infringement in the three decades prior to the creation of the CAFC, while the CAFC in its first eight years affirmed 90% of such decisions [Koenig, 1980; Harmon, 1991]. The strengthening of patent law has not gone unnoticed by corporations. Over the past decade, patents awarded to U. S. corporations have increased by 50%. Furthermore, the willingness of firms to litigate patents has increased considerably. The number of patent suits instituted in the Federal courts has increased from 795 in 1981 to 1553 in 1993; adversarial proceedings within the U. S. Patent and Trademark Office have increased from 246 in 1980 to 684 in 1992 [Administrative Office, various years; U. S. Department of Commerce, various years]. My recent analysis of litigation by firms based in Middlesex County, Massachusetts suggests that six intellectual property-related suits are filed for every one hundred patent awards to corporations. These suits lead to significant expenditures by firms. Based on historical costs, I estimate that patent litigation begun in 1991 will lead to total legal expenditures (in 1991 dollars) of over $1 billion, a substantial amount relative to the $3. billion spent by U. S. firms on basic research in 1991. [These findings are summarized in Lerner, 1995. ] Litigation also leads to substantial indirect costs. The discovery process is likely to require the alleged infringer to produce extensive documentation, time-consuming depositions from employees, and may generate unfavorable publicity. Its officers and directors may also be held i ndividually liable. As firms have realized the value of their patent positions, they have begun reviewing their stockpiles of issued patents. Several companies, including Texas Instruments, Intel, Wang Laboratories, and Digital Equipment, have established groups that approach rivals to demand royalties on old patent awards. In many cases, they have been successful in extracting license agreements and/or past royalties. For instance, Texas Instruments is estimated to have netted $257 million in 1991 from patent licenses and settlements resulting from their general counsel's aggressive enforcement policy [Rosen, 1992]. Particularly striking, practitioner accounts suggest, has been the growth of litigation–and threats of litigation–between large and small firms. This trend is disturbing. While litigation is clearly a necessary mechanism to defend property rights, the proliferation of such suits may be leading to transfers of financial resources from some of the youngest and most innovative firms to more established, better capitalized concerns. Even if the target firm feels that it does not infringe, it may choose to settle rather than fight. It either may be unable to raise the capital to finance a protracted court battle, or else may believe that the publicity associated with the litigation will depress the valuation of its equity. In addition, these small firms may reduce or alter their investment in R. For instance, a 1990 survey of 376 firms found that the time and expense of intellectual property litigation was a major factor in the decision to pursue an innovation for almost twice as many firms with under 500 employees than for larger businesses [Koen, 1990]. These claims are also supported by my study [1995] of the patenting behavior of new biotechnology firms that have different litigation costs. I showed that firms with high litigation costs are less likely to patent in subclasses with many other awards, particularly those of firms with low litigation costs. These effects have been particularly pernicious in emerging industries. Chronically strained for resources, USPTO officials are unlikely to assign many patent examiners to emerging technologies in advance of a wave of applications. As patent applications begin flowing in, the USPTO frequently finds the retention of the few examiners skilled in the new technologies difficult. Companies are likely to hire away all but the least able examiners. These examiners are valuable not only for their knowledge of the USPTO examination procedure in the new technology, but also for their understanding of what other patent applications are in process but not awarded. (U. S. patent applications are held confidential until time of award. ) Many of the examinations in emerging technologies are as a result performed under severe time pressures by inexperienced examiners. Consequently, awards of patents in several critical new technologies have been delayed and highly inconsistent. These ambiguities have created ample opportunities for firms that seek to aggressively litigate their patent awards. The clearest examples of this problem are the biotechnology and software industries. In the latter industry, examples abound where inexperienced examiners have granted patents on technologies that were widely diffused but not previously patented [see, for instance, the many examples chronicled in Aharonian, 1999]. It might be asked why policy-makers have not addressed the deleterious effects of patent policy changes. The difficulties that Federal officials have faced in reforming the patent system are perhaps best illustrated by the efforts to simplify one of the most arcane aspects of our patent system, the â€Å"first-to-invent† policy. With the exception of the Philippines and Jordan, all other nations award patents to firms that are the first to file for patent protection. The U. S. , however, has clung to the first-to-invent system. In the U. S. , a patent will be awarded to the party who can demonstrate (through laboratory notebooks and other evidence) that he was the initial discoverer of a new invention, even if he did not file for patent protection until after others did (within certain limits). A frequently invoked argument for the first-to-invent system is that this provides protection for small inventors, who may take longer to translate a discovery into a completed patent application. While this argument is initially compelling, the reality is quite different. Disputes over priority of invention are resolved through a proceeding before the USPTO's Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences known as an interference. The Board will hold a hearing to determine which inventor first made the discovery. The interference process has been characterized as â€Å"an archaic procedure, replete with traps for the unwary† [Calvert, 1980]. These interferences consume a considerable amount of resources: the adjudication of the average interference is estimated to cost over one hundred thousand dollars [Kingston, 1992]. Yet in recent years, in only about 55 cases annually has the party that was second-to-file been determined to have been the first-to-invent [Calvert and Sofocleous, 1992]. Thus, the U. S. persists in this complex, costly, and idiosyncratic system in order to reverse the priority of 0. 3% of the patent applications filed each year. But this system has proved very resistant to change. At least since 1967, proposals have been unsuccessfully offered to shift the U. S. to a first-to-file system. As recently as January 1994, USPTO Commissioner Bruce Lehman was forced to withdraw such a proposal. While the voices raised in protest over his initiative—as those opposing e arlier reform attempts—were led by advocates for small inventors, it is difficult not to conclude that the greatest beneficiary from the first-to-file system is the small subset of the patent bar that specializes in interference law. It may be thought puzzling that independent inventors, who are generally unable to afford costly litigation, have been so active in supporting the retention of â€Å"first-to-invest. † A frequently voiced complaint is that small inventors take longer to prepare patent applications, and hence would lose out to better-financed rivals, in a â€Å"first-to-file† world. This argument appears to be specious for several reasons. First, economically important discoveries are typically the subject of patent filings in a number of countries. Thus, there is already an enormous pressure to file quickly. Second, the recent reforms of the U. S. system have created a new provisional patent application, which is much simpler to file than a full-fledged application. Finally, as former Commissioner Lehman notes, many most vocal independent inventors opposing patent reform are â€Å"weekend hobbyists . . . [rather than representatives of] knowledge-based industries† [Chartrand, 1995]. As this case study suggests, the failure of Federal reform efforts is due to several factors. First, the issues are complex, and sometimes difficult to understand. Simplistic claims frequently cloud these discussions. For instance, because firms use patents to protect innovations, it is frequently argued that a stronger patent system will lead to more innovation. Second, the people with the greatest economic stake in retaining a litigious and complex patent system—the patent bar—have proven to be a very powerful lobby. The efforts of the highly specialized interference bar to retain â€Å"first to invent† is a prime example. Finally, the top executives of technology-intensive firms have not mounted an effective campaign around these issues. The reason may be that the companies who are most adversely affected are small, capital-constrained firms who do not have time for major lobbying efforts. Thus, an important policy concern is that we avoid taking steps in the name of increasing competitiveness that actually interfere with the workings of innovative small businesses. The 1982 reform of the patent litigation process appears to have had exactly this sort of unintended consequence. References Zoltan J. Acs and David B. Audretsch, â€Å"Innovation in Large and Small Firms: An Empirical Analysis,† American Economic Review, 78 (1988), pp. 78-690. Administrative Office of the United States Courts, Annual Report of the Director, Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, various years. Gregory Aharonian, â€Å"Internet Patent News Service,† http://metalab. unc. edu/patents/ipnsinfo. html, 1999. William L. Baldwin and John T. Scott, Market Structure and Technological Change, Chur, Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1987. Ian A. Calvert, â€Å"An Overview of Interference Practice,† Journal of the Patent Office Society, 62 (1980), pp. 290-308. Ian A. Calvert and Michael Sofocleous, â€Å"Interference Statistics for Fiscal Years 1989 to 1991,† Journal of the Patent and Trademark Office Society, 74 (1992), pp. 822-826. Sabra Chartrand, â€Å"Facing High-Tech Issues, New Patents Chief in Reinventing a Staid Agency,† New York Times, July 14, 1995, p. 17. Michael P. Chu, â€Å"An Antitrust Solution to the New Wave of Predatory Patent Infringement Litigation,† William and Mary Law Review, 33 (1992), pp. 1341-68. Wesley M. Cohen and Richard C. Levin, Empirical Studies of Innovation and Market Structure,† in Richard Schmalensee and Robert D. Willig, editors, Handbook of Industrial Organization, New York: North-Holland, 1989, volume II, chapter 18. Wesley M. Cohen, Richard C. Levin, and David C. Mowery, â€Å"Firm Size and R&D Intensity: A Re-Examination,† Journal of Industrial Economics, 35 (1987), pp. 543-563. Paul A. Gompers and Josh Lerner, The Venture Capital Cycle, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999. Jeremy Greenwood and Boyan Jovanovic, â€Å"The IT Revolution and the Stock Market,† American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, 89 (1999) forthcoming. Robert L. Harmon, Patents and the Federal Circuit, Washington: Bureau of National Affairs, 1991. Rebecca Henderson, â€Å"Underinvestment and Incompetence as Responses to Radical Innovation: Evidence from the Photolithographic Alignment Equipment Industry,† Rand Journal of Economics, 24 (1993), pp. 248-270. Michael C. Jensen, â€Å"Presidential Address: The Modern Industrial Revolution, Exit, and the Failure of Internal Control Systems,† Journal of Finance, 48 (1993), pp. 831-880. John Jewkes, David Sawers, and Richard Stillerman, The Sources of Invention, London: St. Martins Press, 1958. William Kingston, â€Å"Is the United States Right about ‘First-to-Invent'? ,† European Intellectual Property Review, 7 (1992), pp. 23-226. Mary S. Koen, Survey of Small Business Use of Intellectual Property Protection: Report of a Survey Conducted by MO-SCI Corporation for the Small Business Administration, Rolla, Missouri: MO-SCI Corp. , 1990. Gloria K. Koenig, Patent Invalidity: A Statistical and Substantive Analysis, New York: Clark Boardman, 1980. Samuel Kortum a nd Josh Lerner, â€Å"Does Venture Capital Spur Innovation? ,† National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 6846, 1998. Josh Lerner, â€Å"Patenting in the Shadow of Competitors,† Journal of Law and Economics, 38 (1995), pp. 63-595. Josh Lerner, â€Å"Small Businesses, Innovation, and Public Policy,† in Zoltan Acs, editor, Are Small Firms Important? , New York: Kluwer Academic Publishing, 1999, forthcoming. Josh Lerner and Robert Merges, â€Å"The Control of Strategic Alliances: An Empirical Analysis of Biotechnology Collaborations,† Journal of Industrial Economics (Special Issue on â€Å"Inside the Pin Factory: Empirical Studies Augmented by Manager Interviews. †), 46 (1998), pp. 125-156. Robert P. Merges, Patent Law and Policy, Charlottesville: Michie Company, 1992. National Venture Capital Association, 1999 National Venture Capital Association Yearbook, Arlington, Virginia: National Venture Capital Association, 1999. Michael Peltz, â€Å"High Tech’s Premier Venture Capitalist,† Institutional Investor, 30 (June 1996), pp. 89-98. Jennifer R. Reinganum, â€Å"The Timing of Innovation: Research, Development and Diffusion,† in Richard Schmalensee and Robert D. Willig, editors, Handbook of Industrial Organization, New York: North-Holland, 1989, volume I, chapter 14. Miriam Rosen, â€Å"Texas Instruments' $250 Million-a-Year Profit Center,† American Lawyer, 14 (March 1992), pp. 56-63.

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